Western Political Thought

Western political thought stems from the greek states, Aristotle and Socrates, and Plato as well, though not in that order, the following is an essay on the different types of political thought systems and their importance for us in todays world

This is work I was doing for a Masters Degree in Political Science in 2022 

Aristotle (386-322 BC) 

Who was he? 

    He was the teacher of Alexander the great and is considered the father of Modern Political thought, he was a pupil at the Academy of Plato, and was mentored by him as well 

He passed away in 322 BC one year after Alexander died in 323 BC 

Aristotle was different from his teacher Plato in that they had differing political opinions and reasonings, and their methodologies were also different

Lets Talk about Classification of Government when it comes to Aristotle 

A Government is derived from the State

Definition of a state

Definition of Types of Governments

    1. Aristocracy -> Dictatorship/Tyranny

    2. Monarchy -> Oligarchy

    3. Polity/Democracy -> Anarchy

Theory of Citizens 

What is a citizen, definition?

Conditions for a citizenship?

Critique of Aristotles theory 

 Theory of Slavery 

Types of Slavery

    1. Those born into slavery (Slave by nature)

    2. Purchased Slaves (by Law)

    3. Prisoners of war  (By Law) 

Aristotles justification for slavery was that people are of different body and mind and that mentally superior people can make others work for them 

Who was John-Jaques Rousseau? (1712-1778) 

- Swiss philosopher born into the city state of Geneva 

- lived in the 1700's

- Son of a Swiss watchmaker

- He served as a Priest and also a stone-cutter 

- He was an inherent pessimist 

- Fan of music theory as well 

- He inspired Karl Marx through his Social inequality and also the American constitution 

- Rousseau was read on Plato as well 

Rousseau's general political idea is that states can only be legitimate if they are guided by the "general will of their members" 

Rousseaus' idea of general will stems from the desire to reconcile the two fundamental tenants of modern political philosophy, the freedom and individuality of the people, and the authority of the state. 

Why is this reconciliation important? 

because individuals have evolved beyond the ability to sustain themselves individually, and therefore require some sort of governance that allows for fair interdependence. 

In his work, the social contract (1762), Rousseau states that there is a situation in which the individual can enjoy the protection of the masses without infringement on their freedoms and that is achieved through the concept of General Will

In simple words, general will would be the consensus of the people, a way of governance that they all agree. this collective will becomes law and in abiding by this law, the individual remains free yet protected. 

How many types of Wills does man have, according to Rousseau?

Rousseau states that man thinks about himself and then also about society, but he divides these two interests into separate wills that he terms 

1. Actual will (remember with the fact that the A comes before) 

    This is the will that defines self-interest of a person. Where one thinks of themselves before the collective. Rousseau terms this to be conflicting in nature and says that this is fleeting and temporary 

2. Real Will 

    This is the second more pure form of will ( I would call it intention, rather than will, as that explains it more in my opinion), and Rousseau says that this is the the true will as it is where people put aside their self interest for the betterment of the collective, this is the will that forms the basis of his entire political philosophy of General Will 

What is General Will? 

    To explain general will, is to to explain the concept of the expression of the individuals in a society. Rousseau terms General will to be a formulation of the collective Real Will of people living in a society. 

The General Will Equation: 

    Actual Will of an individual - (Individual self-interest) + Societal Awareness  = General Will               

Q: What are the Characteristics of General Will? 

It unifies the people and permeates across the entire society, it is the right will and is proper in its ethical and moral standing, meaning that it acts in the best interest of its trustees. It is inalienable, meaning that it cannot be taken away from the people who have selected it, and therefore becomes a source of democracy and a true reflection of public wisdom 

Q: Analyze critically, and see if there is any that you can say about this concept of General Will by Jean-Jaques Rousseau 

Impractical 

The first critique would be that Rousseau inherently believes that all people are the same and his concept would be applicable for small sample sizes where the interests of the people generally align. For people that have diametrically opposing views, interest of one can be an encroachment of rights for another as is in the case with Beef consumption in India at the moment, Hindus want it to be banned for religious and sentimental reasons, while other religions are deprived of a basic human right. 

Force is Liberty

For Rousseau, the general will is the collective of the population, but at times it is not practical to assume that every member of the state will agree to the same General Will, in such a case, Rousseau suggests forceful obedience to the General Will of the majority, and therein lies the second flaw. His entire concept of General Will is to not encroach upon the liberty of the individual, therefore, if even one individual is being kept out of the loop, then the whole idea falls apart

General Will =/= Real Will

The 3rd issue with this idea is that, as discussed above, it suggests that the Real Will of each individual is the same, and that is simply not possible. Anyone that has been in a room with one other person will testify that it is not easy to decide on something as concrete as the color of the sky, then how can we assume each persons concept of societal welfare is the same? 

General Will Representable

One of Rousseaus' main arguments was that General Will cannot be represented, but that is false: 

Through the existence of the following, we can see that General Will is representable

1. Unions 

2. Political Parties 

3. Press Freedom 

4. Availability of referendums 

Jean Bodin - doctrine of sovereignty (1530-1596) 

Jean Bodin, who was he? 

Bodin was a french philosopher and lawyer that existed in the late 1500's, some notable things to remember him for are as follows:

    - He studied different constitutions and was also well versed in Greek philosophical and political thought and therefore he had the oversight to be able to think about the condition of the area he was living in at the time 

- He wrote books, including Republic and Response (R&R) 

- He founded the political party "Politics" with Micheal Hopital and France De Francis 

- He was a proponent of the Monarchy and looked to establish its upper hand again in the 16th century

- He was considered a modern day Aristotle 

Why is his book, Republica so important ?

In this book, Jean Bodin discusses 3 key things 

    1. Nature of Political Society 

    2. Reformations that can be made in a state 

    3. Concept of Sovereignty (An expression of the public) 

Hence the Republica is said to be one of the most comprehensive works on Sovereignty 

How does Jean Bodin Define Sovereignty?

Using the Acronym (PIA - IAA - SI) we can remember the basic characteristics of Sovereignty

First lets talk about the concept that Bodin thinks is Sovereignty and how it emerges: In his eyes he gives power to the public and says that sovereignty is a collective is "Power" that is charged by each individual and once collected is then gained from the public and "handed-over" (apparently by consent) to a King or a State 

This is a concept not un-similar to the democracy, where the free will of the people is employed. Though there are some loop holes that can be discussed in this theory,  that will be reserved for later

Moving on to the characteristics of Sovereignty in the eyes of Bodin

P = Perpetual 
I = Indivisible 
A = Above the Law 

I = Irrevocable 
A = Above Public Accountability 
A = Authority of Legislation

S = Source of Stability
I = Indefinite powers 

Now lets talk about the characteristics, each in detail 

Perpetual 

Governments will come and go, but the absolute powers of the state or the monarchy will remain unchallenged

Indivisible

One state can have one ruler at a time therefore, sovereignty, which is an expression of the public is indivisible 

Above the Law 

No one can question sovereignty as it makes the law of the land, therefore it is the law and no subject to its scrutiny

Irrevocable 

It cannot be transferred to someone and is free of time, therefore is irrevocable as it relates to the state 

Above the Public 

As it formulates the laws, sovereignty and whomever holds is its above public scrutiny 

Authority of Legislation

Is seen as an unequivocal source of legislation that is binding on all individuals 

Source of Stability

It cannot be contested and applies uniformly on all subjects and is thought to be some sort of expression of the public therefore it is a pillar of stability in the community as it unifies and does not divide 

Indefinite Powers

No permission is needed by the public for the sovereign to make laws 

A lot of criticism can be drawn just from the characteristics of Bodin's suggested definition, but one thing is for certain, while it may share some similarities (more in theory than in practice) to the democratic principles that govern states today, Bodin's concept is far from it 

What powers does Jean Bodin give to Sovereignty?

Taxation 

Making Laws (Legislative) 

Administrative 

Judicial (carrying out justice)  

Ability to declare War or Peace (military) 

Currency creation

Giving pardons 

This is fairly self explanatory and makes logical sense, these are all inclusive in any democratic nation that exists today 

To close, like any concept there are flaws, drawbacks and limitations, Bodin himself puts some restrictions (external) on Sovereignty 

1. Must abide by natural laws (because these are not man-made) 

2. Abide by state laws 

    - Religious 

    - Ethical

    - Constitutional 

3. Personal property is to be respected and not confiscated 

4. Officers should be consulted in matters of taxation

5. Responsible for the safety of its subjects and their rights and to keep law and order 

6. Agreements with the public and other states are to be respected and abided by 

Summary:

Jean Bodin was a french Philosopher and lawyer that existed in the late 1500s (1530 to 1596), he was a supporter of the monarchy and was considered a modern day Aristotle for his political thinking, which is outlined in his most famous work, the Republica. He talks about the characteristics of sovereignty, its definition, its limitations and also its functional powers (responsibilities)